Dictionary

Achilles the Greek hero.

In Greek mythology, Achilles was the strongest, swiftest, and most competent of the Greek heroes who fought in the Trojan War. He was the son of the nymph Thetis, who dipped him as an infant into the River Styx and thus made every part of his body invulnerable--except the heel by which she held him. Knowing that Achilles would die at Troy, Thetis sought to prevent his going by hiding him among the women of the court of King Lycomedes. He was found there by Odysseus, however, and persuaded to join the Greek army before Troy.

According to Homer's Iliad, in the tenth year of the Trojan War, Achilles withdrew from the fighting after Agamemnon seized Briseis, his favorite slave girl. He sulked in his tent until the death of his close friend Patroclus stirred him to return to battle. The smith-god Hephaestus forged him a fine set of arms, including a famous shield on which was depicted the whole range of the human condition. Thus equipped, he avenged Patroclus's death in a celebrated duel with the great Trojan hero Hector. After dragging Hector's body seven times around the walls of Troy behind his chariot, Achilles was persuaded to allow the slain Trojan hero a proper funeral.

According to several other traditions, Achilles died shortly after when wounded in his heel--his one vulnerable spot--by an arrow fired by Paris or Apollo. His armor was awarded to Odysseus. [s.v. “Achilles,” The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc. 1993).]

Adeimantus An elder brother of Plato.

Aeschines According to the Wests, “Aeschines wrote Socratic dialogues, of which a few fragments survive. He was once prosecuted for nonpayment of a debt. He was present at Socrates' death.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 61, pp. 88-87].

Aeacus Concerning Aeacus, Grace and Thomas West write: “Pindar (in Isthmian VIII.22-24) says that he was `most careful' of mortals and `gave judgments even to the gods.'” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 80, p. 95].

Aeantodorus According to the Wests, “Aeantodorus is otherwise unknown.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 61, pp. 88-87].

Agamemnon Chief commander of the Greek forces in the Trojan War. Achilles' commander.

In Greek mythology, Agamemnon, a son of ATREUS, was the commander in chief of the Greeks in the Trojan War. He was the king of Mycenae and a brother of Menelaus, whose kidnapped wife, Helen of Troy, was the immediate cause of the conflict. On his way to Troy, Agamemnon agreed to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia in order to ensure a fair wind for his ships. Upon Agamemnon's return from the war, his wife Clytemnestra, who had betrayed him with Aegisthus, resolved to avenge her daughter's sacrifice. When her husband was at ease in the bath, she and her lover murdered him. Agamemnon's death was later avenged by his son Orestes. These tragic events are the subject of a trilogy, the Oresteia, written by the 5th-century BC dramatist Aeschylus. [s.v. “Agamemnon,” C. Scott Littleton The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc. 1993).]

Bibliography: Fitts, Dudley, trans., Four Greek Plays (1960); Gagarin, Michael, Aeschylean Drama (1976); Hadas, Moses, ed., Greek Drama (1982).

Ajax Grace and Thomas West write:

The legendary Palamedes was the subject of several lost tragedies. Gorgias…wrote an Apology [`Defense'] of Palamedes which has been compared to the Apology of Socrates. Palamedes' famous cleverness brought him into conflict with Odysseus, either because Odysseus was jealous of him or because Palamedes shrewdly foiled Odysseus' scheme to avoid serving in the Trojan War. (The story has several variants.) Odysseus implicated Palamedes in a plot to betray the Greeks to the Trojans, and Palamedes was stoned to death by the army. Ajax, one of the foremost Greek warriors at Troy, was outwitted and tricked by Odysseus in a contest over the arms of Achilles, which had been set for a prize after Achilles' death. Odysseus apparently won the contest by some underhanded device. Ajax sought to avenge the defeat by killing Odysseus and Agamemnon, but instead, in a fit of madness visited on him by the goddess Athena, he slaughtered a flock of sheep. When he came to his senses, Ajax committed suicide from shame and humiliation. (Odyssey XI.541-562; Sophocles, Ajax.) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 82, p. 96].

Alcibiades Regarding Alcibiades, Thomas and Grace West maintain:

Socrates refers obliquely to the claim that several of his students later became prominent in anti-democratic politics. According to Xenophon, Socrates' alleged corruption of Alcibiades and Critias was a leading concern of his prosecutors [(Memorabilia I.2.12-48]. This claim probably could not be raised explicitly because the amnesty of 403, proclaimed when the democracy was reestablished, prohibited prosecutions for crimes committed before that date.

Alcibiades, a brilliant and ambitious man who had associated with Socrates as a youth, was involved in several scandalous actions that contributed to popular suspicion of Socrates. On the night before an Athenian naval expedition departed on its disastrous attempt to conquer Sicily (415), many of the statues of Hermes in Athens were mutilated. As the investigation of this incident proceeded, it was alleged or discovered that certain wealthy and educated men had privately made mockery of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a venerable Athenian rite whose details were supposed to be kept secret from all except those formally initiated. The people of Athens feared that these incidents portended a conspiracy against the democracy and evil for the Sicilian venture. Among those implicated in the profanation of the Mysteries was Alcibiades, who had meanwhile departed for Sicily as one of the commanders chosen by the Athenians for the expedition. His political enemies arranged for him to be tried in absentia for impiety, and he was convicted and sentenced to death. Alcibiades then fled to Sparta, where he successfully aided the Spartans in their war efforts against Athens. He was permitted to return to Athens for a short period later in the war, after he had changed sides again and won several naval victories for the Athenians. However, soon afterwards, suspected of anti-democratic intrigue, he was exiled for the last time. In sum, Alcibiades was said to be “the most unrestrained and hubristic and violent of all those in the democracy” (Memorabilia I.2.12).

Critias and Charmides, two other former associates of Socrates, were involved in the infamous oligarchy of the Thirty. (In the Charmides Plato portrays Socrates in a friendly philosophical conversation with them that occurred in 431, many years before the trial.) Critias, who had also been implicated in the mutilation of the Hermae, was the leading figure in the Thirty; he was said to be “the most greedy and violent and murderous of all those in the oligarchy” (Memorabilia I.2.12). Charmides, a younger relative of Critias, was one of the “The in the Piraeus{ who ruled Athens' seaport as deputies of the Thirty. Both men died violently in a pitched battle with the exiled democrats. Both, incidentally, were relatives of Plato. (Thucydides VI-VIII, esp. VI. 17-29, 53, 60-61; Xenophon, Hellenica I.1-II.4; Andocides, On the Mysteries.) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 60, p. 85].

Amphipolis Concerning the battles, Thomas and Grace West write:

These three battles of the war between Athens and Sparta are described in Thucydides' history (Potidaea: I.56-65, II.58, 70; Amphipolis: V.6-10; Delium: IV.90-101). Socrates is reported to have aided Alcibiades when he was wounded at Potidaea and to have retreated bravely at Delium (Symposium 220d-221b, Laches 189b). Potidaea was a costly and inconclusive victory; Amphipolis and Delium were decisive defeats. George Anastaplo points out aht on each occasion the Athenian commander who stationed Socrates at his post died during the battle. (“Human Being and Citizen: A beginning to the Study of the Apology of Socrates,” in Human Being and Citizen, p. 24.) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 82, p. 80].

analogy n. [pl. analogies(-jis)], [Fr. analogie; L. analogia; Gr. analogia, proportion< analogos, in duration; ana-, according to + logos, ration, relation], 1. similarity in some respects between things otherwise unlike; partial resemblance. 2. an explaining of something by comapring it point by point with something else. 3. in biology, similarity in function between parts dissimilar in origin and structure: distinguished from homology. 4. in logic, the inference that certain admitted resemblances imply probable further similarity. 5. in linguistics, the process by which new or less familiar words, constructons, or pronunciations conform with the pattern of older or more familiar (and often unrelated) ones of older or more familiar and (and often unrelated) ones: as, energize is formed from energy by anaolgy with apologize from apology. [s.v. "analogy" in: Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, College Edition (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 53.]

Typically, an analogy is a comparison having at least four terms in the form: “A is to B as C is to D.” This statement is often expressed in the following way:

Analogies are extremely useful in mathematics.

Antiphon of Cephisus 4th-5th century B.C. Greek orator.

Anytus One of Socrates' accusers. See: Lycon and Meletus.

“Anytus…was a man of substance, who had served as general of the Athenian armies and had recently been active in expelling the Thirty Tyrants. He was a bitter enemy of all the sophists, and, according to the author of the Apology attributed to Xenophon, he had been irritated by Socrates' criticism of his conduct in emplying his son in his tannery, when the young man was fitted for higher things.” [H. N. Fowler, “Introduction to the Apology” in: Plato in Twelve Volumes, Volume I. “Euthyprhro,” “Apology,” “Crito,” “Phaedo,” and “Phaedrus,” with an English translation by Harold North Fowler and an introduction by W. R. M. Lamb (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 63].

“Anytus was the most important of Socrates' three accusers, although he did not initiate the prosecution (Meletus did: Euthyphro 2b). Anytus appeas in Plato's Meno (89e—95a), where he becomes angry with Socrates and threatens him in a discussion in which Socrates appears to praise the sophists and attack the politicians in their capacity as educators of the young. Anytus was said to be a tanner by trade.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 6, p. 64].

“Anytus was one of the most powerful democratic politicians, a leader int he fight against the Thirty, and Plato represents him in the Meno as abusing the Sophists and uttering dark hints of what the city might do to Socrates himself. His objections to Socrates's behaviour will have been largely political, but to bring political charges against him, or mention his earlier associations with Critias or Charmides, would have been contrary to the amnesty declared by the restored democracy, to which Anytus was conspicuously loyal. The accusation therefore confined itself to offences against the state religion and the vaguely worded `corruption of youth'. [W. K. C. Gutherie, Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), pp. 61-2].

Apollo Greek god. Son of Zeus and Leto.

In Greek mythology, Apollo and his twin sister, Artemis, were the children of Zeus and Leto and were born on the island of DELOS. Hence, Apollo was often called the Delian god, and Delos long remained a center of his worship. He was also identified closely with Delphi, in central Greece, where he killed the serpent Python and founded the most renowned center for prophecy in the ancient world, the shrine of the Delphic Oracle. Areas of special concern to Apollo were prophecy, medicine, the fine arts, archery, beauty, flocks and herds, law, courage, and wisdom. Associated with him were the tripod, omphalos (a beehive-shaped stone at Delphi, designating that spot as the center or navel of the Earth), lyre, bow and arrows, laurel wreath, palm tree, wolf, hawk, crow, and fawn. Although Apollo was not Greek in origin, he became, next to Zeus, the god most revered by the Greeks and the god who best embodied the Greek spirit. Later he became confused with the sun-god Helios and was considered the god of light. Of Apollo's many loves, one of the best known was Daphne, who fled his embraces and was turned into his tree, the laurel. From that time on, Apollo wore a laurel wreath. Laurel wreaths became the prize awarded in athletic and musical competitions. Asclepius, a son of Apollo, became the god of medicine; another son, Linus, was a renowned music teacher. In Roman mythology, Apollo represented the literary and fine arts, culture, and the law. Augustus (r. 31 BC-AD 14) built a magnificent temple to him and included in it two public libraries, one for Greek works and another for Latin works. Apollo was a favorite subject for artists of every medium. The walls of his temple at Delphi bore two Greek maxims, "Know Thyself" and "Nothing in Excess." [s.v. “Apollo,” Robert E. Wolverton, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Apollodorus Thomas and Grace West cite Xenophon who claims that Apollodorus

was great admirer of Socrates, but “otherwise simple” (Apology 28). A companion once told him “You are always alike, Apollodorus. For you always speak badly of yourself and others, and you seem to me to believe that simply everyone, beginning with yourself, is wretched except Socrates” (Symposium173d). When Apollodorus connot control his lament at the sight of Socrates dying, Socrates chastises him, as well as the others attending him, for their womanlike conduct (Phaedo 117d). [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 61, pp. 86-87].

Apology In Greek the title of this Platonic dialogue is "apologia." Although the English word "apology" looks like this Greek word, "apologia," the two words do not mean the same thing. One English dictionary defines apology as: "1. a formal spoken or written defense; argument to show that some idea, religion, etc. is right. 2. an acknowledging and expressing regret for a fault, injury, insult, etc.; asking a person's pardon." [s.v. "apology" in: Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, College Edition (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 68.]

In this dialogue, however, Socrates is not asking for a pardon; he is defending himself in an Athenian court of law. As G.M.A. Grube notes, the title is “a `transliteration,' not a translation, of the Greek apologia” [Translators introduction to Plato, Apology, in The Trial and Death of Socrates, translated by G. M. A. Grube (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1975), p. 21].

The Greek verb “apologeisthai” means “to `speak in defense.'” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 2, p. 64].

arete “the specific excellence of a thing. That excellence may or may not involve what we call morality: Socrates speaks of the virtue of colts and cattle at 20b.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 2, p. 64].

See: virtue.

Ariston Plato's father. The word literally means “the best.”

Aristophanes (c. 445–c. 385 BC). A poet who wrote comic drama. Aristophanes is important to students of world literature not only because of his contribution to the evolution Greek comic drama, but also because of his influence on the development modern comedy. As Jeffrey Henderson writes, Aristophanes,

the only extant representative of the Athenian style known as Old Attic Comedy, refined his genre to its highest point of sophistication and virtuosity. In his last two plays, examples of Middle Comedy, he also bridged the gap between the comic forms born of religious ritual and the domestically oriented New Comedy of the Hellenistic period, which, via its Roman imitators, determined the course comedy would take in Elizabethan and modern times. [s.v. “Aristophanes,” Jeffery Henderson, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

In The Clouds which received its first viewing in Athens (423 BC), Aristophanes' depicts Socrates and his disciples as Sophists.

The humor of the play hinges on Strepsiades' plan to enroll his wastrel son Pheidippides in Socrates' "think tank" so that he can learn the kind of sophistic logic and smooth rhetoric that will enable him successfully to argue a morally indefensible case and thereby outwit the family's creditors. But Pheidippides masters the art of specious reasoning so well that he turns it against his father. [s.v. “Clouds,” The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

According to legend, Socrates was in the audience of the first performance of this work. At one point in the play, Socrates is said to have stood up in the audience to allow the citizens of Athens to see the one who was the brunt of Aristophanes' satirical work.

Bibliography: Dover, Kenneth J., Aristophanic Comedy (1972); Glen, R. S., The Two Muses: An Introduction to Fifth-Century Athens by Way of the Drama (1968); Murray, Gilbert, Aristophanes (1933); Strauss, Leo, Socrates and Aristophanes (1966).

Aristophanes' comedy See: Aristophanes and The Clouds.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). Student of Plato.

assembly According to Thomas and Grace West, “The Assembly…the highest authority in democratic Athens, was composed of whatever adult male citizens happened to attend any given meeting. All important questions of public policy were determined by the Assembly.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 43, p. 74].

assemblymen see: assembly

by Hera Thomas and Grace West note that “`By Hera' ias an oath usually used by women. Hera, a god of merriage and of the life of women, is frequently connected with the birth and nurture of children.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 41, p. 74].

by the Dog Regarding Socrates unusal oath, Grace and Thomas West write: “`By the dog' is an oath apparently unique to Socrates. He swears `by the dog, the Egyptians' god' at Gorgias 482b; `the dog' may be Anubis, the mediator between the upper and lower world, whose Greek counterpart is Hermes.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 32, p. 70].

Callias the son of Hipponicus. Concerning Callias, Grace and Thomas West write:

Callias, a wealthy Athenian notorious for his dissolute and corrupt manner of life, was a generou patron of sophists. In the Protagoras one of the three sophists mentioned above appear as guests at his house. One of Callias' two sons reputedly was born of Callias' wife's mother when she was a mistress of his (Andocides, On the Mysteries 124—132). [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 18, p. 67].

Chaerephon According to Gutherie, he was known as the bat because of his “emaciated appearance.” [W. K. C. Gutherie, Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), n. 1, p. 45].

According to Thomas and Grace West, “Chaerephon, the principal companion of Socrates in the Clouds, shows his impetuosity at the beginning of the Charmides, where Socrates calls him a `madman.' According to Aristophanes he was pale and withered (Clouds 504) and his nickname was `the bat' (Birds 1296). Chaerephon also appears at the beginning of the Gorgias.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 27, p. 69].

Charmides Regarding Critias, Thomas and Grace West maintain:

Alcibiades, a brilliant and ambitious man who had associated with Socrates as a youth, was involved in several scandalous actions that contributed to popular suspicion of Socrates. On the night before an Athenian naval expedition departed on its disastrous attempt to conquer Sicily (415), many of the statues of Hermes in Athens were mutilated. As the investigation of this incident proceeded, it was alleged or discovered that certain wealthy and educated men had privately made mockery of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a venerable Athenian rite whose details were supposed to be kept secret from all except those formally initiated. The people of Athens feared that these incidents portended a conspiracy against the democracy and evil for the Sicilian venture. Among those implicated in the profanation of the Mysteries was Alcibiades, who had meanwhile departed for Sicily as one of the commanders chosen by the Athenians for the expedition. His political enemies arranged for him to be tried in absentia for impiety, and he was convicted and sentenced to death. Alcibiades then fled to Sparta, where he successfully aided the Spartans in their war efforts against Athens. He was permitted to return to Athens for a short period later in the war, after he had changed sides again and won several naval victories for the Athenians. However, soon afterwards, suspected of anti-democratic intrigue, he was exiled for the last time. In sum, Alcibiades was said to be “the most unrestrained and hubristic and violent of all those in the democracy” (Memorabilia I.2.12).

circa “prep. [L.], about: used to indicate an approximate date, figure, etc., as, circa 1650: abbreviated c., ca., cir., circ., C.” [s.v. “circa” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 264.]

The Clouds see: Aristophanes.

In The Clouds which received its first viewing in Athens (423 BC), Aristophanes' depicts Socrates and his disciples as Sophists.

court Regarding the trial, Grace and Thomas West write:

In the Athenian democracy of this time prosecutions could be initiated by any citizen or group of citizens. The trial was conducted before a jury of probably five hundred citizens (called “judges”) selected by lot. There were officials to regulated the proceedings and to take care of documents, but no “judge” in our sense. The trial proceeded in two stages: determination of innocence or guilt, then determination of penalty in case of guilt. In the first stage the prosecutors or accusers (in this trial there were three) presented their arguments in separate speeches, after which the accused gave his defense speech (apologia). Socrates' apologia concludes at 35d. The jury the voted on the defendant's innocence or guilt; Socrates was voted guilty. There being no fixed penalty in Athenian law for Socrates' crimes, each party had to propose a penalty for the jury to choose between. Socrates' accuser proposed the death penalty; Socrates presents his counterproposal in the second speech of the Apology (35e–38b). The jury voted to condemn him to death, probably by a larger margin than the vote for “guilty” (Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers II.42). Socrates had time to make a short third speech to the jurymen and bystanders while the officials were still busy with matters pertaining to the trial (38c–end), after which he was taken away to jail to await execution. [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 1, p. 63].

counter-assessment see: court. Regarding the trial, Grace and Thomas West write:

Critias Regarding Critias, Thomas and Grace West maintain:

Critias and Charmides, two other former associates of Socrates, were involved in the infamous oligarchy of the Thirty. (In the Charmides Plato portrays Socrates in a friendly philosophical conversation with them that occurred in 431, many years before the trial.) Critias, who had also been implicated in the mutilation of the Hermae, was the leading figure in the Thirty; he was said to be “the most greedy and violent and murderous of all those in the oligarchy” (Memorabilia I.2.12). Charmides, a younger relative of Critias, was one of the “The in the Piraeus{ who ruled Athens' seaport as deputies of the Thirty. Both men died violently in a pitched battle with the exiled democrats. Both, incidentally, were relatives of Plato. (Thucydides VI-VIII, esp. VI. 17-29, 53, 60-61; Xenophon, Hellenica I.1-II.4; Andocides, On the Mysteries.) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 60, p. 85].

Crito According to Thomas and Grace West, “he was a sober, well-to-do gentleman of ordinary intelligence, a friend to Socrates not because of philosophy, but because of their common life in proximity. They came from the same `deme' (a neighborhood-sized political subdivision of Athens). Crito offers to pay for Socrates' excape from prision in the Crito. He helps Socrates care for his body in the Phaedo, concerning himself with Socrates' wife and children, his final bath, and his burial. He also appears in the Euthydemus and in Xenopnon, Memorabilia I.2.48, II.9. [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 61, pp. 88-87].

Critobulus Of Critobulus, Thomas and Grace West write that “Crito calls his son `puny' and despairs of educating him in Ethydemus 271b and 306d-307a. Critobulus seems to be a rather silly boy who spends his time going to comedies and has no serious friends (Xenophon, Oeconomicus 3.7, Memorabilia II.6; cf. I.3-10, 3.13). He was present at Socrates' death (Phaedo 59b). [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 61, pp. 88-87].

daimonion Socrates' divine sign. Concerning Socrates' divine sign, Gutherie writes:

The exact nature of the `divine sign' may be left to students of psychology or religious experience. At this distance of time, and on the evidence available, it probably cannot be decided with certainty. We may be content with knowing that it was something that Socrates himself took seriously, and that therefore his educational activities were for him a matter of genuine vocation. More generally, belief in a special, direct relation between himself and divine forces must be accepted in any account of his mentality which lays claim to completeness. [W. K. C. Gutherie, Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 84].

Thomas and Grace West add that “For Socrates, `the daimonic' seems to be the relam between the divne (the gods) and the merely human. A diamon, as explained at 27d-e, is a being half-divine and hald-human.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 37, p. 73].

Delium Concerning the battles, Thomas and Grace West write:

These three battles of the war between Athens and Sparta are described in Thucydides' history (Potidaea: I.56-65, II.58, 70; Amphipolis: V.6-10; Delium: IV.90-101). Socrates is reported to have aided Alcibiades when he was wounded at Potidaea and to have retreated bravely at Delium (Symposium 220d-221b, Laches 189b). Potidaea was a costly and inconclusive victory; Amphipolis and Delium were decisive defeats. George Anastaplo points out aht on each occasion the Athenian commander who stationed Socrates at his post died during the battle. (“Human Being and Citizen: A beginning to the Study of the Apology of Socrates,” in Human Being and Citizen, p. 24.) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 82, p. 80].

Delphi The location of the Delphic Oracle.

Delphi, located in Phocis, Greece, on the lower southern slopes of Mount Parnassus near the Gulf of Corinth, was a sacred city to the ancient Greeks. It was called the omphalos (navel or center) of the Earth, and this was designated by a large, rounded, conical stone, which was also called the omphalos. Delphi was sacred to Apollo, the god of prophecy and patron of philosophy and the arts, whose famous temple and prophetic shrine were there. The temple within the surrounding sanctuary was the home of the famous Delphic Oracle. Consulted by Oedipus, Socrates, and other well-known ancient figures, it gave its messages in such ambiguous ways that it could seldom be proven wrong.

Delphi was also sacred to Dionysus, the god associated with wine, fertility, and orgiastic dance, and to the nine Muses, patron goddesses of music, literature, and history. For the Greeks, therefore, Delphi was the center in which opposing creative forces--the rational creativity of Apollo and the irrational creativity of Dionysus--merged and from which all creative forms emerged. In honor of the killing of the monster Python by Apollo, the Pythian Games were held in Delphi every 4 years. During the 1890s and the early 20th century, archaeologists unearthed much of the gymnasium and stadium where these games were held. The sanctuary of Apollo has also been excavated, and many notable works of sculpture found. [s.v. “Delphi,” Robert E. Wolverton The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Fontenrose, Joseph, The Delphic Oracle (1979); Lewis, Neville, Delphi and the Sacred Way (1987).

delphic oracle see Delphi and oracle.

Demodocus Concerning Demodocus, the Wests say: “An older man than Socrates, he held in his lifetime many of the highest offices in Athens (Theages 127e). In the Theages he requests that Socrates undertake to educate his son Theages. There is a dialogue attributed to Plato, probably spurious, entitled Demodocus. [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 82, p. 80].

demigod 1. in mythology, a) a lesser god; minor deity. b) the offspring of a human being and a god or goddess; hence, 2. a person regarded as partly divine. 3. a hero declared to be a god. [s.v. “demigod” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 390.]

dia Greek preposition “Right through.” See: diameter.

dialogue Typically, the word “dialogue” refers to a conversation. One dictionary defines “dialogue” as “1. a talking together; conversation. 2. an open and frank discussion, as in seeking mutual undersatnding or harmony. 3. a written work in the form of a conversation. 4. the passages of talk in a play, story, radio act, etc.” [s.v. “dialogue” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 264.]

The English word “dialogue” comes from two Greek words–dia and logos.

diameter n. [Greek dia-, through + metron, a measure], 1. a straight line passing through the center of a circle, sphere, etc. from one side to ther other. [s.v. “diameter” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 404.]

divine sign see: daimonion. Socrates' divine sign. Concerning Socrates' divine sign, Gutherie writes:

drachma One hundred drachmae are the equivalent of one mina. According to Grace and Thomas West, “one drachma was the daily allowance for young men in training to be military officers, a very modest sum.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 46, p. 76].

Evenus Regarding Evenus, Grace and Thomas West write:

Evenus (from the Aegean island of Paros), besides teaching for pay, wrote lyric poetry and discussed rhetorical technique (Phaedo 60d—61c and Phaedrus 267a); a few fragments of his poetry have survived. [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 22, p. 68].

example See paradigm

fifth part of the votes Regarding this passage, Thomas and Grace West write:

In order to discourage frivolous or malicious prosecutions, Athenian law prescribed a fine against the accuser if less than one-fifth of the jury voted for conviction. If there were 500 men in Socrates' jury, 280 voted for conviction and 220 for acquittal. (Two hundred eighty is one-half of 500 plus 30: Socrates says that a change of 30 votes would have acquitted him.) When he says that Meletus would not have gotten one-fifth of the votes without the other tow accusers, Socrates seems to be assuming playfully that each accuser contributed precisely one-third of the total votes for conviction. (One-fifth of the votes is 100; on-third of 280 is ninety-three, seven less than 100.) Or Socrates may simply be attributing most of the vote to convict to the persuasive authority of the politician Anytus. [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 65,p p. 89-90].

five minae See minae.

the god see: Apollo. Greek god. Son of Zeus and Leto.

god of Delphi see: Apollo. Greek god. Son of Zeus and Leto.

Gorgias of Leontini Sophists. Prodicus of Ceos and Hippias of Elis

Regarding, Gorgias of Leontini, Prodicus of Ceos, and Hippias of Elis Grace and Thomas West write:

These three men were known as “sophists” (the word is related to sophos,, “wise”…), and all were foreigners, as Socrates emphasizes. The sophists were held in low esteem by both the old-fashioned artistocratic gentlemen and the democratic politicians. Socrates' accuser Anytus says in the Meno, “It is apparent that they maim and corrupt those who associate with them” (91c). Gorgias (from Leontini, a Greek city in Sicily), a famous teacher of rhetoric taught that the art of persuasive speech is the chief part of education and that the possession of that art enables one to accomplish anything one likes by fuling other men (Gorgias 449—452). Prodicus (from Ceos, an Aegean island), a grammarian and philologist, stressed the need for precision in the use of words (Protagoras 339e—341c). Hippias (from Elis, a city of southern Greece) prided himself on the scope and diversity of his knowledge, which included that of the heavenly things (Hippias Major 285c). The remarkable moneymaking abilities of these three men are discussed at the beginning of the Hippias Major. Protagoras, the most famous sophist of all, was dead by the time of Socrates' trial. [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 17, p. 67].

Hades Regarding Hades, Grace and Thomas West write:

In Greek poetry Hades is the insubstantial abode for the shades or shadows of the dead (Odyssey XI). Strictly speaking, Hades is Pluto, the god of the underworld, and the expression translated `in hades' is literally `in Hades' [house].' The name fo Hades (Haides) is a variant on the word `unseen' (aides). [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 52, p. 80].

hand-workers craftsmen.

Hector see Achilles and Trojan War.

In Greek mythology, Hector, the eldest son of Hecuba and Priam and the husband of Andromache, led the Trojan forces in the Trojan War. Hector is a main character of Homer's Iliad, which depicts him as a noble, compassionate, and brave warrior. In the tenth year of the war Hector killed Patroclus, whose friend Achilles swore to avenge him. After killing Hector, Achilles trampled on his body, and each day for 12 days he dragged it by the heels three times around the walls of Troy before finally giving it up to Priam. The Trojans burned Hector's body with great honor after 9 days of mourning. [s.v. “Hector,” The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Herculean labors Refers to the labors performed by the mythological character, Heracles.

Hercules is the Roman name for the Greek mythological hero Heracles, who was famous for his courage and strength. Numerous plays and operas have been based on the story of his conception and birth: he was conceived when his mother, Alcmene, was seduced by Zeus, who had disguised himself as her husband, Amphitryon. Zeus's wife, Hera, was duly angered over the impending birth of Hercules. She succeeded in delaying his birth, but her attempt to kill him by sending two snakes into his crib failed--Hercules strangled both of them.

The many feats of Hercules are customarily divided into the 12 labors and other exploits. The 12 labors, which were performed for the Greek king Eurystheus as a result of Hera's enmity, were: (1) killing the Nemean lion, which could not be killed by metal or stone; from the lion he made the cloak and club that became his trademarks; (2) killing the multiheaded Hydra of Lerna, which could grow two new heads for each one it lost; the blood of the Hydra was the source of poison for Hercules' arrows, which could cause death even from a scratch; (3) capturing the golden-horned hind of Ceryneia, which was sacred to Artemis; (4) capturing the Erymanthian boar; (5) cleaning the stables of Augeas; (6) routing the Stymphalian birds, which had iron feathers and were sacred to ARES; (7) capturing the Cretan bull; (8) capturing the man-eating mares of Diomedes; (9) obtaining the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons; (10) driving the cattle of Geryon from far west to Greece; (11) capturing Cerberus, the watchdog of the underworld; and (12) obtaining the golden apples of the Hesperides.

His other exploits included erecting the Pillars of Hercules (Gates of Gibraltar) with the aid of his father, Zeus, and tricking Atlas into holding the world on his shoulders again. In addition, he provided 50 sons for King Thespius by impregnating 49 of the king's 50 daughters in one night. He also inaugurated the Olympian Games, in honor of Zeus, and won every event in the first Olympics.

After his many adventures, Hercules settled down and married Deianeira. When a centaur named Nessus abducted Deianeira, Hercules shot him with one of his poisoned arrows. The dying centaur gave Deianeira a vial of his blood (now mixed with the Hydra's poison), telling her that she could use it to rekindle Hercules' love for her if it should ever fade. Later, when her jealousy was aroused, she sent her husband a garment dipped in the blood. When Hercules put it on, he felt as if his body was on fire. Realizing that death was near, he threw himself on a funeral pyre. As the pyre burned, he was carried up to Mt. Olympus, where he became a god and married Hebe, a daughter of Hera. In Greek mythology, Hercules was the only man to make the full transition from mortal to immortal.

Among Greek and Roman philosophers, particularly the Stoics, Hercules was considered a hero-saint, the epitome of one who chose virtue over pleasure and endured a hard life on earth to enjoy immortality with the gods. Euripides (Heracles), Sophocles (The Women of Trachis), and Seneca (Hercules Furens and Hercules Oetaeus) wrote plays about Hercules. Today, the phrase herculean task refers to a difficult chore. [s.v. “Hercules,” Robert E. Wolverton, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Bulfinch, Thomas, Bulfinch's Mythology, 2d rev. ed. (1970); Grant, Michael, Myths of the Greeks and Romans (1965); Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths, 2 vols. (1955); Hamilton, Edith, Mythology (1942; repr. 1971); Wolverton, Robert E., An Outline of Classical Mythology (1966).

Hesiod Eighth century B. C. Greek poet.

Hesiod, a Greek poet of the 8th century BC who is thought to have been a contemporary of Homer, was the son of a poor Boeotian farmer. Unlike Homer, he did not confine his subject matter to legends of wars and love, but wrote didactic verse on moral and religious truths and everyday reality. Hesiod's major poem, Works and Days, begins as a rebuke to his brother Perses for cheating him of his inheritance but develops into moral counsel on the value of honest labor. He supports his argument with the story of the downfall of Prometheus, brought about by pride. Then follows a description of agricultural labor on the barren soil of Hesiod's native land, including practical advice on the use of implements, care of animals, and choice of crops. The most memorable section of the poem is a description of a harsh winter in the mountains of Greece. Many writers have been inspired by Works and Days, notably the Roman poet Vergil in his Georgics. The Theogony, which is also thought to be by Hesiod, is the earliest Greek religious poem. This more ambitious work draws together numerous myths, giving genealogies of the gods and an account of the creation of the world and the ensuing struggle in heaven between the gods, from which Zeus emerges triumphant. [s.v. “Hesiod,” Charles Rowan Beye, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Beye, Charles R., Ancient Greek Literature and Society (1975); Burn, Andrew R., The World of Hesiod, 2d ed. (1966); Solmsen, Friedrich, Hesiod and Aeschylus (1949).

Hippias of Elis Sophists. Gorgias of Leontini and Prodicus of Ceos

Regarding, Gorgias of Leontini, Prodicus of Ceos, and Hippias of Elis Grace and Thomas West write:

hoi polloi the many. The Wests note that this is “an expression referring here to the majority of the jury men” and that it “also suggests the `vulgar multitude' that we still hear in the words hoi polloi” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 15, p. 66].

Homer see: Achilles, Hector, and Iliad

Homer was the major figure of ancient Greek literature and the author of the earliest and finest epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Modern scholars hold conflicting theories on the authorship of these poems, but the ancient Greeks believed that a blind poet named Homer had composed them. Tradition has it that he lived in the 12th century BC, around the time of the Trojan War, in an Ionic settlement, either Chios or Smyrna, where he made his living as a court singer and storyteller.

Modern archaeological research has uncovered artifacts similar to those described in the poems, providing evidence that Homer wrote at a later date. Because the poems display a considerable knowledge of Eastern, or Ionian, Greece and are written in the dialect of that region, most scholars now suppose that Homer was Ionian of the 8th or 9th century B. C. Homer writes nothing of himself in his poems, but similes in the Iliad and the Odyssey frequently make reference to the humble lives of farmers and artisans, so it is sometimes conjectured that Homer was of this class.

The question of how the poems were composed also remains a matter for debate. It is likely that Homer and his audience were members of a preliterate, oral culture and that his poems were written down long after their original composition. Nineteenth-century scholars argued that one person could not memorize so long a text and that the poems must have been compiled by an editor, who merged several independent works into a consistent whole. This view is supported by the occasional inconsistencies of narrative and awkward transitions from subject to subject.

Twentieth-century studies of preliterate societies have shown, however, that lengthy works can be composed orally by poets whose recitations belong to a long tradition of storytelling. The oral poet constructs his poem from verbal formulas, groups of two or more words that have already been composed in order to serve recurring needs in the narrative. These may be used, for example, when the poet wishes to reintroduce a character whom he has already described. Formulaic passages may also extend over several lines and describe actions such as combat or the preparation of a meal. The oral poet composes for listeners who, like the audience at a musical concert, base their appreciation on the repetitive elements that bind a work together and impress its theme on the memory. Like the poet of Beowulf, Homer was probably a practitioner of an inherited art, retelling a story that his audience had heard many times before.

Differences of style and language between the Iliad and the Odyssey have led some critics to argue that each is the work of a different poet. The 3d-century AD literary critic Longinus suggested, however, that the Iliad was the work of Homer's youth and the Odyssey of his maturity. This simple but acute perception accounts for the wide divergences in moral and religious tone between the two. The Iliad is the tragic story of the noble Achilles, who perfectly embodies the ancient Greek ideals of heroic conduct but also suffers from the human failings of pride and anger. The Grecian army is divided by bickering, many admirable men are killed, and even the gods quarrel. The Odyssey, by contrast, contains many comic episodes, and its hero, Odysseus, triumphs over formidable adversaries through his superior intelligence, not by brute strength. The Iliad portrays a universe marred by moral disorder, but the Odyssey shows gods punishing men for their sins and granting a good man his just reward.

The ancient Greeks regarded Homer as divine and respected his work as a source of wisdom and model of heroic conduct. His influence on later literature is too extensive to be assessed but may be traced from Hesiod to the present day. The Roman poet Vergil emulated both the Iliad and the Odyssey in his Aeneid, whose hero, Aeneas, displays the courage of Achilles and the wisdom of Odysseus. Aeneas's wanderings from Troy to Italy--where he founds the city of Rome--provided Roman readers with a myth that linked their own culture with that of ancient Greece. The Homeric tradition in literature inspired William Shakespeare's tragic and antiheroic Troilus and Cressida (1609) and James Joyce's Ulysses (1922), which transports the deeds of Odysseus to the setting of 20th-century Dublin. [s.v. “Homer,” Charles Rowan Beye, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Autenreith, G., Homeric Dictionary (1984); Beye, Charles R., The Iliad, The Odyssey, and The Epic Tradition (1966); Bowra, C. M., Homer (1970); Bremer, J.Ma., et al., eds., Homer (1987); Camps, W.A., An Introduction to Homer (1980); Dimock, G.E., The Unity of the Odyssey (1989); Finley, Moses I., The World of Odysseus (1954); Kirk, Geoffrey, Homer and The Epic (1965); Lord, Albert B., Singer of Tales (1960); Mireaux, Emile, Daily Life in the Time of Homer, trans. by Iris Sells (1959); Nagler, Michael, Spontaneity and Tradition (1975); Rouse, William H., Homer (1939; repr. 1977); Schein, S.L., The Mortal Hero (1984); Silk, M., Homer: The Iliad (1987); Vivante, P., Homer (1985); Wace, Alan, and Stubbins, Frank, eds., A Companion to Homer (1963); Whitman, Cedric H., Homer and the Homeric Tradition (1958).

hoplite “n. . . . a heavily armed foot soldier of ancient Greece.” [s.v. “hoplite” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 699.]

Hoplites were the heavily armed infantry used by the city-states of ancient Greece from the 7th century BC on. Armed with helmet, shield, breastplate, greaves, and sword and spear, they fought in close phalanx formations and were especially effective in defensive fighting. All citizens wealthy enough to buy the equipment--but not wealthy enough to have horses--were required to serve as hoplites. [s.v. “hoplite,” The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Iliad

The Iliad, an epic poem of roughly 16,000 lines in dactylic hexameter, is thought to be the earliest surviving example of Greek literature …. Although opinions as to its composition vary, the Iliad is usually ascribed to the poet Homer, who may have dictated the poem after composing it orally. Set in the 10th and last year of the TROJAN WAR, the Iliad deals specifically with the Greek hero Achilles, who leaves the battlefield in anger after the commander in chief, Agamemnon, confiscates his prize of war, the maid Briseis. Without Achilles' prowess, the fortunes of the Greeks decline. Achilles returns to combat only after his friend Patroclus is slain by Hector, the Trojan prince. The final battle between Achilles and Hector, in which the Greek triumphs, presages the destruction of Troy. Achilles' vengeance ultimately yields to compassion when, in the most moving episode of the poem, Achilles returns Hector's body to his aged father Priam.

Portraying the deeds and death of men in battle, the poet of the Iliad conveys the idea of heroic energy burning brightly in the midst of the dark futility of human existence. For richness and vitality of language the Iliad remains unrivaled. It has inspired a range of distinguished translators, from George Chapman in the 17th century and Alexander Pope in the 18th century to Richmond Lattimore (1951), Robert Fitzgerald (1974), and Robert Fagles (1990) in the 20th century. The work has also become, by its extensive treatment of the earlier Mycenaean age, an invaluable source for historical and archaeological researchers. [s.v. “Iliad,” Charles Rowan Beye, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Atchity, K.J., Homer's “Iliad” (1978); Beye, Charles R., “The Iliad,” “the Odyssey,” and the Epic Tradition (1966; repr. 1976); Vivante, Paolo, The Homeric Imagination (1970; repr. 1983); Whitman, Cedric H., Homer and the Heroic Tradition (1958); Willcox, M.M., ed., “The Iliad” of Homer (1984).

inspired the Greek word gives us the English word “enthusiasm.” Literally, enthusiasm [en + theos] means the god within or having god within

ironic See: irony.

irony n. [pl. ironies (-niz)], [Fr. ironie; L. ironia; Gr. eironeia < eiron, dissembler in speech < eirein, to speak] 1. a method of humorous or sarcastic expression in which the intended menaing of the words used is the direct opposite of their usual sense: as, the speaker was using irony when he said that the stupid plan was “very clever.” 2. an instance of this. 3. a combination of circumstances or a result that isthe opposite of what might be expected or considered appropriate: as, it was an irony of fate that the fire boat burned and sank. 4. the feigning of igornace in argument: more frequently Socratic irony (after Socrates, who uses this device in Plato's Dialogues). [s.v. “irony” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p.773.]

judges See: court and counter-assessment. Regarding the trial, Grace and Thomas West write:

Leon the Salaminian Thomas and Grace West provide the following account of Leon:

The arrest and execution without trial of Leon, who was reputed to be a perfectly just man, was one of the harshest of the many injustices committed by the oligarchy. This regime, later called the “Thirty Tyrants,” was installed in Athens by the victorious Spartans at the end of the Peloponnesian War. At firs the Thirty confined their executions to unpopular informers and demagogues, but soon their scope extended to many former supporters of the democracy as well as wealthy citizens and foreign residents, whose riches offered a tempting target. Many of those who were sympathetic to the democracy left Athens and went into exile. these exiles, among whom Anytus (later Socrates' accuser) was prominent, overthrew the oligarchy by force of arms in 403 after it had ruled less than one year. Only in 401—two years before Socrates' trial—did the partisans of the democracy finally overcome the oligarchs themselves, who had withdrawn to a small town outside Athens. (Xenophon, Hellenica II.3-4 [Leon of Salamis is mentioned at II.3.39]; Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 34-40; Lysias, Against Agoratus 78.) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 59, p. 84].

listeners the audience.

logos This Greek word had pproximately 25 meanings. For example, logos means word and prologue means words before.

¤En a¤rxW h«n o£ lo¢gow, kaï o£ lo¢gow h«n pro¡w to¡n ueo¢n, kaï ueo¢w h«n o£ lo¢gow. -- ¤Ek toy ey¤aggeli¢oy toy kata¡ ¤Ivanhn, A¢, a¢

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. [John I:1].

But logos also means the study of . . ., or words about . . .. Hence, theology means words about god, or the study of god, psychology means the study of the psyche (soul) and biology means the study of life.

However, logos can also mean giving an account in words, an argument. And it can refer to a reasoning process.

love see: philos / philia / philein.

Lycon See: Anytus and Meletus.

“There was a third accuser, an otherwise unknown Lycon, whom the Apology practically ignores to concentrat on Anytus and Meletus. He is said to be acting on behalf of the orators, whereas Anytus represents the crats or trades as well as the politicians (he owned a tannery), and Meletus the poets (Apol. 23e).” [W. K. C. Gutherie, Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 62].

Lysanias of Sphettus The Wests note that “Lysanias is otherwise unknown. Sphettos was the name of an Athenian deme.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 59, p. 84].

many the many [“hoi polloi”].

Musaeus Thomas and Grace West write:

These are the four seminal poets of the Greeks, although little is known of Orpheus and Mausaeus, and they may be merely legendary. Hesiod's chief poems are Works and Days and Theogony. In Aristophanes' Frogs the four poets are mentioned in the same order as here.

For Orpheus showed us our rites, and how to hold back from murders,
Musaeus cures for diseases, and oracles; Hesiod
how to work the earth, and seasons of harves and tilling; and the divine Homer
orders [of battle], virtues, and armings of men? (1032-1036) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 81, p. 96].

Meletus See Euthyphro where Socrates describes Meletus. See: Anytus and Lycon.

“Ostensiblly, the chief accuser was Meletus, in whose name the indictment stood. In the Euthyphro (2b), Socrates adescribes him to Euthyphro, who has not heard of him, as `an unknown young man with straight hair and a skimpy beard', and he can only have been a puppet whose strings were pulled by the powerful Anytus, possibly chosen for the enthusiasm with which he would press the religious charge.” [W. K. C. Gutherie, Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 61].

men of Athens the members of the jury

“Athenian juries were very large, in this case 501, and they combined the duties of jury and judge as we know them by both convicting and sentencing. Obviously, it would have been virtually impossible for so large a body to discuss various penalties and decide on one. The problem was resolved rather neatly, however by having the prosecutor, after conviction, assess the penalty he though appropriate, followed by a counter-assessment by the defendant. The jury would then decide between the two. this procedure generally made for moderation on both sides.” [“Translators introduction to Plato's Apology, ” in Five Dialogues: ”Euthyphro,” “Apology,” “Crito,” “Meno,” and “Phaedo,” translated by G.M.A. Grube and corrected and improved by Richard Hogan and Donald J. Zeyl (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1975), p. 23].

“Cases involving religion came under the jurisdiction ot the King Archon, to whom Meletus submitted his indictment of Socrates (see the beginning of the Euthyphro), and such cases, like others were tried before the heliastic court, which consisted altogether of six thousand citizens chosen by lot, six hundred from each of the ten tribes. The court did not however, usually sit as a whole, but was divided, so that cases were tried before smaller bodies, consisting generally of five hundred jurymen or judges, though sometimes the number was less, as four hundred or two hundred, and sometimes more, as one thousand. One additional judge was added to these even numbers to avoid a tie. Socrates was tried before a curt of 501 (Apology, 36 A). If the accuser did not receive a fifth part of the votes cast in a case of this kind, he was subject to a fine of 1000 drachmae (about 35 or $175). No penalty was prescribed by law for the offence with which Socrates was charged. After Socrates was found guilty the penalty still remained to be determined. The rule was that the accused, after conviction, should propose a counter penalty, the court being obliged to choose one of the two penalties proposed (Apology, 36 B—38 B); no compromise was permitted.” [H. N. Fowler, “Introduction to the Apology” in: Plato in Twelve Volumes, Volume I. “Euthyprhro,” “Apology,” “Crito,” “Phaedo,” and “Phaedrus,” with an English translation by Harold North Fowler and an introduction by W. R. M. Lamb (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 64].

minae Grube explains that “one mina was the equivalent of 100 drachmas, equivalent to, say, twenty-five dollars, though in purchasing power probably five time greater. In any case, a ridiclously small sum under the circumstances.” [Plato, The Trial and Death of Socrates, translated by G.M.A. Grube (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1981), n. 12, p. 39]. In another edition of the Apology, Grube adds, “In the late fifth century one drachma was the standard daily wage of a laborer. A mina, then, was a considerable sum, as Aristotle recognized (`A mina is the price of a ransom.” [Nichomachian Ethics 1134b21].” [Plato, Five Dialogues: “Euthyphro,” “Apology,” Crito,” “Meno,” and “Phaedo”, translated by G.M.A. Grube (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1981), n. 12, p. 41].

Grace and Thomas West note that “a mina consists of 100 drachmae, a fairly small amount for a fine. Thirty minae is a quite substantial sum of money.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 17, p. 67].

According to Gutherie, thirty minae is “quite a respectable sum. It has bee calculated that at the end of the fifth century a mina had about the purchasing power of £ 75 in the 1950s.” [W. K. C. Gutherie, Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 62].

Minos Concerning Minos Grace and Thomas West write:

In Homer's Odyssey Odysseus pays a visit to Hades' among those he says he saw there was Minos, “brilliant son of Zeus, holding a golden sceptre, and seated, giving laws to the dead, while they, seated and standing around the lord through the wide-gated dwelling of Hades, asked for judgments” (XI.568-571). Minos was said to be an ancient king of Crete, the first to clear the seas of pirates (Thucydides I.4, I.8). There was a tradition that he exacted an annual Athenian tribute of seven youths and seven maidens, whom he would feed to a great beast. Theseus freed Athens from the tribute by going to Crete and killing this Minotaur (see Crito 43c and Phaedo 58 a-c). Minos was said to have been the original lawgiver for the Cretans and to have been a just man while he lived (Mions 318 d-321 b; Laws beginning). [Plato, Five Dialogues: “Euthyphro,” “Apology,” Crito,” “Meno,” and “Phaedo”, translated by G.M.A. Grube (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1981), n. 80, p. 95].

the naval battle Regarding this incident, the Wests explain:

Athens and Sparta, the two leading cities of the Greek world, fought an exhausting twenty-seven-year war which ended with a decisive Athenian defeat in 404 B.C., five years before Socrates' trial in 399. the story of that war is told in Thucydides' history and in Xenophon's Hellenica Books I and II. Two years before the end of the war, in 406, the Athenians won a major victory in a naval battle fought near the Aegean island of Arginusae. However, on account of the confusion following the battle and a storm that arose soon afterwards, the disabled ship and the Athenians still at the scene of the battle, both alive and dead, could not be rescued as the ten generals had intended. When the generals returned to Athens, eight of them were accused by Theramenes, an unscrupulous and ambitious politician, of neglecting their duty. One of the ten was not accused, and one had died after the battle. (Socrates uses here the word anairesthai for “pick up”; in this context, the word can mean particularly “to take up dead bodies for burial.” This may imply that the most important omission by the generals was the failure to pick up the dead for burial, a crucial rite in the Greek tradition of piety.) Theramenes cleverly manipulated the Assembly of the people, and it was led to condemn the eight to death as a group, although it was evident that many or perhaps all of them were innocent of wrongdoing. Socrates happened to be one of the prytanes who were chairmen of the Assembly, and he maintained that such a procedure was against the law on the ground that the generals should have been tried separately. His protest was ineffectual, for his fellow prytanes easily yielded to the loud threats of the politicians and the Assembly. The six generals who were in Athens were executed. (Xenophon, Helllenica I.6-7.) [Plato, Five Dialogues: “Euthyphro,” “Apology,” Crito,” “Meno,” and “Phaedo”, translated by G.M.A. Grube (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1981), n. 58, p. 84].

Nicostratus According to the Wests, Nicostratus is “otherwise unknown.” [Plato, Five Dialogues: “Euthyphro,” “Apology,” Crito,” “Meno,” and “Phaedo”, translated by G.M.A. Grube (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1981), n. 61, pp. 86-87].

Odysseus Hero of Homer's Odyssey.

oligarchy This Greek word means the “rule of the few.”

Oligarchy (Greek, "rule by the few") is a form of government in which a small group of people holds ruling power. The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote of several types of oligarchy: those in which property qualifications restrict voting or office holding to a few; those in which political power is based on birth; and those in which power is held by a small clique or junta. The military dictatorships…are contemporary examples of one type of oligarchy, as are the political machines that sometimes run city governments in democratic countries. Political theorists, notably Robert Michels and Vilfredo Pareto, have argued that even democratic membership groups will inevitably become oligarchies--a theory called the "iron law of oligarchy." [s.v. “Oligarchy,” The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Olympic games

Olympia, on the northwest Peloponnesian peninsula, in southern Greece, was an important religious center and site of the Olympic Games, the most important festival of the ancient Greek world. The site lies in the valley of the Alphaeus (now Alfios) River, below wooded Mount Kronos, in the ancient province of Elis.

Although the sacred precinct was never a city, it contained many of the finest treasures of Greek, and Roman, art and architecture. The games, officially established in 776 B. C. and held every 4 years, were attended by some of the most famous personages of the ancient world--Plato, Themistocles, Philip II of Macedonia, and Nero.

A sacred place possibly as early as the Mycenaean period (c.1600-1100 BC), Olympia was a major sanctuary by the 8th century B. C. Within the walls of the Altis, a sacred grove, are well-preserved Doric temples begun about 600 B. C. and dedicated to the Mother of the Gods (Metroon) and to Hera (Heraion). In the Heraion was found the famous Hermes and the Infant Dionysus (c.340 B. C.; Olympia Museum) of Praxiteles. The temple of Zeus, one of the largest in mainland Greece, was built about 470-456 B. C. by the architect Libon of Elis. It has a Doric colonnade and fine sculptural decoration (now in the Olympia Museum), including metopes depicting the Labors of Hercules and marble pediments attributed to Alcamenes and Paeonius showing a battle of centaurs and the local legend of Pelops and Oenomaus. The temple housed one of the Seven Wonders of the World, the gold-and-ivory statue of Zeus by Phidias. Outside were statues of athletic victors and the famous Nike (Victory; c.420 B. C.; Olympia Museum) of Paeonius.

On a terrace facing the temples is a row of small, 6th-century B. C. treasuries, representing various Greek cities and colonies. Other structures are the rotunda of Philip of Macedonia and the athletic buildings, including the gymnasium; palaestra, used for boxing and wrestling; leonidaion, the hotel for participants; and the hippodrome, where horse and chariot races were held. The stadium, dating from the 4th century B. C., seated 40,000 spectators on grassy banks above a course 600 Olympian feet (190 m/630 ft) long.

The Olympic Games were suspended in A. D. 393. The sanctuary was demolished in 426 and obliterated by earthquakes and floods in the 6th century. Olympia was rediscovered beneath 6 m (20 ft) of earth in the 18th century, written of by the great classical antiquarian Johann Winkelmann, and first excavated by the 19th-century German archaeologists Ernst Curtius, Friedrich Adler, and Wilhelm Dorpfeld. Statues, votive offerings, armor, ceramics, and other finds are housed in the museum at Olympia. The International Olympic Academy is nearby. [s.v. “Olympic Games,” Jean MacIntosh Turfa The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Ashmole, Bernard, and Yalouris, Nicholas, Olympia: The Sculptures of the Temple of Zeus (1967); Drees, L., Olympia: Gods, Artists, and Athletes (1968); Harris, Harold, Greek Athletes and Athletics (1964; repr. 1972); Raschke, Wendy, ed., The Archaeology of the Olympics (1987); Swaddling, Judith, The Ancient Olympic Games (1984).

oracle see: Delphi and Delphic Oracle.

In ancient Greece, a priest or priestess who communicated the response of a god to a questioner was called an oracle. The term was also applied to the response itself and to the shrine of the god. The most famous oracles were at Dodona, where Zeus was thought to give answers through the rustling of the oak leaves, and at Delphi, where Apollo supposedly spoke through a priestess. In both cases, oracular responses came in such ambiguous ways that it was difficult to prove them wrong. A famous Roman oracle was at Cumae, where the Sibyl was said to have drawn inspiration from Apollo. [s.v. “Oracle,” Robert E. Wolverton The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Orpheus Thomas and Grace West write:

These are the four seminal poets of the Greeks, although little is known of Orpheus and Mausaeus, and they may be merely legendary. Hesiod's chief poems are Works and Days and Theogony. In Aristophanes' Frogs the four poets are mentioned in the same order as here.

For Orpheus showed us our rites, and how to hold back from murders,
Musaeus cures for diseases, and oracles; Hesiod
how to work the earth, and seasons of harves and tilling; and the divine Homer
orders [of battle], virtues, and armings of men? (1032-1036) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 81, p. 96].

Palamedes Grace and Thomas West write:

The legendary Palamedes was the subject of several lost tragedies. Gorgias…wrote an Apology [`Defense'] of Palamedes which has been compared ot the Apology of Socrates. Palamedes' famous cleverness brought him into conflict with Odysseus, either because Odysseus was jealous of him or because Palamedes shrewdly foiled Odysseus' scheme to avoid serving in the Trojan War. (The story has several variants.) Odysseus implicated Palamedes in a plot to betray the Greeks to the Trojans, and Palamedes was stoned to death by the army. Ajax, one of the foremost Greek warriors at Troy, was outwitted and tricked by Odysseus in a contest over the arms of Achilles, which had been set for a prize after Achilles; death. Odysseus apparently won the contest by some underhanded device. Ajax sought to avenge the defeat by killing Odysseus and Agamemnon, but instead, in a fit of madness visited on him by the goddess Athena, he slaughtered a flock of sheep. When he came to his senses, Ajax committed suicide from shame and humiliation. (Odyssey XI.541-562; Sophocles, Ajax.) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 82, p. 96].

paradigm model

Paralus According to the Wests, Nicostratus is “otherwise unknown.” [Plato, Five Dialogues: “Euthyphro,” “Apology,” Crito,” “Meno,” and “Phaedo”, translated by G. M. A. Grube (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1981), n. 61, pp. 86-87].

Paros an island in the Aegean.

Patroclus A friend of Achilles. His death at the hands of the Trojan hero Hector is depicted in Homer's Iliad. see: Achilles, Hector, and Iliad

great King of Persia According to the Wests, “The King of Persia, called the `Great King' by the Greeks, was popularly believed to be the happiest of men because of his enormous wealth and empire.” [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 79, p. 95].

philos / philia / philein The Greek word for to love.

philosophy The word “philosophy” is a Greek word composed of two words: philein and sophia. “Philein” means to love and the first part of the English word “Philadelphia” (the city of brotherly love) is derived from this Greek word. “Sophia” means “wisdom” and the first part of the word “Sophomore” (the wise fool) is derived from this Greek word. Philosophy, then, means “the love of wisdom.” The philosopher is the one who loves wisdom.

Plato (c. 428–348 or 347BC) A Greek thinker who was born in Athens to a distinguished family. When Plato was approximately 20 years old, he became acquainted with Socrates. After Socrates' death, Plato authored some 24 dialogues most of which feature Socrates engaged in discussion with people in the city of Athens.

polis A Greek word meaning city.

Potidaea Concerning the battles, Thomas and Grace West write:

These three battles of the war between Athens and Sparta are described in Thucydides' history (Potidaea: I.56-65, II.58, 70; Amphipolis: V.6-10; Delium: IV.90-101). Socrates is reported to have aided Alcibiades when he was wounded at Potidaea and to have retreated bravely at Delium (Symposium 220d-221b, Laches 189b). Potidaea was a costly and inconclusive victory; Amphipolis and Delium were decisive defeats. George Anastaplo points out aht on each occasion the Athenian commander who stationed Socrates at his post died during the battle. (“Human Being and Citizen: A beginning to the Study of the Apology of Socrates,” in Human Being and Citizen, p. 24.) [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 82, p. 80].

Prodicus of Ceos Sophists. Gorgias of Leontini and Hippias of Elis

Regarding, Gorgias of Leontini, Prodicus of Ceos, and Hippias of Elis Grace and Thomas West write:

prologue n. [Gr. prologos; pro-, before + logos, a discourse], 1. an introduction to a poem, play, etc.; especially, introductory lines or verses spoken, ordinarily by one of the principal members of the cast, before a dramatic performance. [s.v. “prologue” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 699.]

Protagoras

Protagoras, c.490-c.420 BC, was one of the leading Greek professional teachers called Sophists. He taught rhetoric and law and introduced the "adversary system," in which a student argues both sides of a case, into legal training. Protagoras was particularly famous for his urbane religious skepticism and his relativism; "man," he said, "is the measure of all things." Through his friend Pericles, he influenced contemporary political thought in Athens. Plato, in his dialogue the Protagoras, created an imaginary conversation between Protagoras and Socrates. [s.v. “Protagoras,” Robert S. Brumbaugh, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Guthrie, W. K. C., Sophists (1971); Owens, Joseph, A History of Ancient Western Philosophy (1959); Untersteiner, Mario, The Sophists, trans. by Kathleen Freeman (1954).

prytanes Concerning the prytanes, Thomas and Grace West write:

The citizen-body of Athens was divided into ten administrative units called “tribes.” Each year fifty men were selected by lot from each of the tribes to serve on the Council…for a one-year term. The year was divided into ten parts called `prytanies,” and each group of fifth served as “prytanes” during one of these periods. Among their other responsibilities, the prytanes arranged for meetings of the Council and Assembly. When the Assembly met, certain of the prytanes were chosen by lot to be its chairmen. [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 57, p. 83].

Pythia The priestess of Apollo.

Rhadamanthus Regarding Rhadamanthys, Thomas and Grace West write:

The brother of Minos, he too had a reputation for great justice.…The poet Pindar speaks of the “straight counsel” of Rhadamanthys, who was placed in authority in the Isles of the Blessed, where men who have lived justly go to oive after their deaths (Oplympian II.68-77). [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 80, p. 95].

sarcasm n. [Fr. sarcasme; L. sarcasmos; Gr. sarkasmos , sarkazein, to tear flesh like dogs, speak bitterly < sarx, sarkos, flesh], 1. a taunting, sneering, cutting, or caustic remark; gibe or jeer, generally ironical. 2. the making of such remaarks. 3. the characteristic quality of such remarks. [s.v. “sarcasm” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 1294.]

See: irony.

Socrates

The life of the Greek philosopher Socrates (469-399 BC) marks such a critical point in Western thought that standard histories divide Greek philosophy into pre-Socratic and post-Socratic periods. Socrates left no writings of his own, and his work has inspired almost as many different interpretations as there have been interpreters. He remains one of the most important and one of the most enigmatic figures in Western philosophy.

As a young man Socrates became fascinated with the new scientific ideas that Anaxagoras and the latter's associate Archelaus had introduced to Athens. He seems for a time to have been the leader of an Athenian research circle--which would explain why the first appearance of Socrates in literature is as a villainous, atheistic scientist in The Clouds of Aristophanes. Young Socrates also knew the SOPHISTS and listened to their debates and ceremonial orations.

Socrates and the Sophists

Neither science nor Sophistry, however, could answer a new philosophic question that struck him. The earlier Greek thinkers had been concerned almost wholly with physics and cosmology until the Sophists suggested that what should be done instead was to teach young men skills to satisfy their natural self-interest. Instead, Socrates wondered: "What is a 'self'?" Although "Know Thyself!" was one of three sayings carved on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, the directive proved difficult to carry out.

The so-called scientific views of the time, particularly that of atomism, defined the self as a physical organ that responded to environmental pressure. Socrates felt, however, that the Sophists, for all their talk of self-interest, had little curiosity about the status of a self; they assumed that it was merely an isolated center constantly greedy for more pleasure, prestige, and power. The Sophists further thought that the values that people advocated were all conventional, varying from one culture to another, and that no one would ever act against his or her own interest, regardless of how many people talked as though they would. This complex of ideas offered little to explain human nature and excellence.

Socrates' Later Life and Thought

Socrates, setting about his search for the self, was convinced of the importance of his quest. Until educators and teachers knew what human excellence was, he thought, they were engaging in false pretenses by claiming that they knew how to improve students or societies. Socrates believed that objective patterns, or "forms," exist that define human excellence, that these are neither culturally relative nor subjective, and that philosophic inquiry could discover them.

In the period after Athenian defeat in the Peloponnesian War, however, the political leaders did not want to be awakened; uncritical patriotism seemed to them what they and Athens needed. In an attempt to frighten Socrates away, they threatened to bring him to trial for "impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens." Socrates stayed and stood trial. In his APOLOGY, PLATO reconstructs his speech to the jury in defense of his beliefs. He was convicted and executed in 399 B. C.

Evaluation

Different observers saw, and still see, Socrates from different perspectives. Plato viewed him as a great philosopher; to the comic poet Aristophanes, he was an irreligious scientist; his friend Xenophon saw him as a tough retired soldier. Each of four later philosophic Socratic schools caught one facet of Socrates and made that their ideal of philosophy.

In modern times Socrates has been admired by Soren Kierkegaard, among others. Martin Heidegger, a major figure in contemporary existential thought, believed that Socrates' search for the self showed that Socrates had indeed discovered and lived the definition of human nature--that "man is the being whose nature is to ask what is his nature." [s.v. “Socrates,” Robert S. Brumbaugh, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Guthrie, W. K. C., Socrates (1971); Grube, G. M. A., The Trial and Death of Socrates (1975); Levin, Richard, ed., The Question of Socrates (1961); Plato, The Last Days of Socrates, trans. by Hugh Tredennick (1954; repr. 1961); Spiegelberg, Herbert, and Morgan, B. Q., The Socratic Enigma (1964); Stone, I. F., The Trial of Socrates (1987); Strauss, Leo, Xenophon's Socrates (1972); Taylor, A. E., Socrates: The Man and His Thought (1933); Vlastos, Gregory, ed., The Philosophy of Socrates (1971); Xenophon, Recollections of Socrates, trans. by Anna S. Benjamin (1965).

son of Thetis see: Achilles.

sophia This Greek word means wisdom.

Sophists

The Greek Sophists (from the Greek sophos, "wise") were professional educators and lecturers who first appeared in the 5th century BC. Although not a school as such, the members of this group had several new ideas in common. They turned their attention from science and philosophy to more practical studies, principally rhetoric, politics, and law--the skills young Greeks needed to become successful. Part of their educational ideal still survives in the modern notion of "sophistication." They also encouraged some acquaintance with arts and crafts.

The older Sophists tended to be agnostics in religion, relativists in ethics, and power theorists in politics, but they did not go out of their way to shock people with these ideas. Plato, in his attempts to demonstrate that Socrates was not a Sophist, created imaginary conversations portraying the leading figures of this group. These include Gorgias, the master of rhetoric; Protagoras, expert lawyer; Hippias, a kind of animate encyclopedia who professed to know everything; and Prodicus, one of the first Greek students of language and grammar. The younger Sophists of the next generation were much more outspoken, and therefore unpopular.

From the outset the Sophists believed that an opposition existed between "nature" (phusis) and "custom" or "convention" (nomos). They treated legal codes, ethical ideals, and social systems as merely conventional. They argued, for example, that by nature the weak have no rights against the strong and that the gods were invented by rulers to intimidate their subjects. [s.v. “Socrates,” Robert S. Brumbaugh, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Guthrie, W. K. C., Sophists (1971); Plato, Dialogues, trans. by Benjamin Jowett, 2 vols. (1937); Untersteiner, Mario, The Sophists, trans. by Kathleen Freeman (1954).

Sisyphus

In Greek mythology Sisyphus, the wily son of Aeolus and king of Corinth, outwitted even Death. When Death came to fetch him, Sisyphus bound him in chains so that no one could die until Zeus freed him. Sisyphus then went to Hades, but he had previously instructed his wife to give him an improper burial and was allowed to return to Earth in order to settle this matter. He then refused to return to Hades. When Death finally claimed him, Sisyphus was condemned eternally to roll a heavy stone to the top of a hill, only to have it fall back each time. [s.v. “Sisyphus,” The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Telamon The son of Odysseus.

Theosdotides According to the Wests, Theosdotides is “otherwise unknown.” [Plato, Five Dialogues: “Euthyphro,” “Apology,” Crito,” “Meno,” and “Phaedo”, translated by G.M.A. Grube (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1981), n. 61, pp. 86-87].

Theodotus According to the Wests, Theodotus is “otherwise unknown.” [Plato, Five Dialogues: “Euthyphro,” “Apology,” Crito,” “Meno,” and “Phaedo”, translated by G.M.A. Grube (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1981), n. 61, pp. 86-87].

transliterate “v.t. [TRANSLITERATED, TRANSLITERATING] . . . to write or spell (words, etc.) in the characters of another alphabet that representthe same sound or sounds.” [s.v. “transliterate” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 1548.]

For example, the Greek word Apolgia is transliterated as Apology.

tribes see: prytanes. Concerning the tribes, Thomas and Grace West write:

Triptolemus Regarding Triptolemus, Thomas and Grace West write:

Legendary king of Eleusis, near Athens, he learned from the goddess Demeter the mysteries of the seasonal growth and harvest of grain; he passed on to men these “Eleusinian Mysteries” (which centered upon the worship of Demeter and her daughter Persephone) and the art of farming. Athenian vase-painting depicts Triptolemus, Rhadamanthys, and Aecus as judges of the dead (Minos was apparently left out because he was thought harsh and unjust by the Athenians on account of the tribute). Socrates seems to have been the first to include both Minos and Triptolemus among the judges of the dead. In the Georgias he speaks at length about the judgments of the dead (523e-527a). There he names Minos, Rhadamanthys, and Aecus as the judges. See also Crito 54b-c. [Plato and Aristophanes, Four Texts on Socrates, translated with notes by Thomas G. West and Grace Starry West, introduction by Thomas G. West (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), n. 80, pp. 95-96].

Troy see Trojan War.

The name Troy refers both to the remains of a Bronze Age fortress and city at Hissarlik in modern Turkey, near the entrance to the Dardanelles, and to the legendary city of King Priam that was destroyed by ancient Greeks in the Trojan War. There are reasons to believe that the physical remains in Turkey correspond, in part at least, to the city in Greek literature. Troy was once known also as Ilios or Ilion; this is reflected in the name of Homer's epic poem the Iliad, a work that claims to relate the story of Troy's fall.

In modern times Troy was rediscovered and excavated by Heinrich Schliemann (1870-90) and, after his death, by his colleague Wilhelm Dorpfeld (1893-94). Within the mound of archaeological layers (strata) at the site, which reaches a depth of more than 15 m (50 ft), Schliemann and Dorpfeld distinguished nine major divisions (Troy I-IX). The strata at Troy were reexamined (1932-38) by an archaeological expedition from the University of Cincinnati, directed by Carl W. Blegen.

From the evidence recovered by Schliemann, Dorpfeld, and Blegen, the long history of Troy can be reconstructed. Its first settlers arrived about 3000 BC, and its earlier phases (Troy I-VII, 3000-1100 BC), when it existed as a powerful fortress, are more interesting than its later life as a city (Troy VIII and IX, 700 BC-AD c.400). The earliest settlement, Troy I, lasted about 500 years (3000-2500 BC); it was a small fortress enclosed by a strong wall. Houses were built with foundations of stone and walls of clay brick. The settlers knew of copper but normally used bone and stone for tools and weapons. Most of their surviving possessions are of earthenware pottery. Troy I, like many other ancient settlements, came to its end in a devastating fire.

Troy II (2500-2200 BC), although only 122 m (400 ft) across, was slightly larger than the preceding settlement and had more massive walls and larger buildings. It was wealthier than Troy I; it possessed much gold and silver and made much more use of copper. Its artisans were more advanced; the potter's wheel, for example, appeared at Troy during phase II, when the Trojans were in contact with both the Aegean world to the west and central Anatolia to the east. Troy's power and wealth were probably derived from its strategic position, controlling important trade routes between Asia and Europe. The ruler, his family, and their most trusted retainers probably lived in the fortress, whereas the majority of the Trojan people lived in the surrounding countryside, grew grain and other crops, tended livestock, and provided troops when required.

Troy II, like Troy I, suffered catastrophic devastation by fire. Although the character of the fortress was preserved throughout periods III-V (2200-1800 B. C.), this era was undistinguished. The high point of Troy's history was Troy VI (1800-1300 BC). The area enclosed by the citadel was then about 230 m (750 ft) across, with finely crafted stone walls and stoutly fortified gates. Once again, the rulers of Troy occupied a position of power and importance in relation to the neighboring peoples of the Aegean and Anatolia.

Troy VI was destroyed by earthquake. Troy VIIa (1300-1200 BC), resettled by the survivors of Troy VI, depended on the same fortifications. Its houses were crowded together; many had large storage jars sunk beneath the floors. The impression is that of a community under stress, possibly like Priam's citadel, the siege of which figures in the Iliad and other stories of the Trojan War. According to Greek tradition, Troy fell in 1184 BC. The archaeological evidence supports a date of about 1200 BC for the destruction of Troy VIIa. Resettlement followed on a small scale during Troy VIIb (1200-1100 BC).

Thereafter, the site seems to have been deserted for about four centuries. About 700 B. C. new settlers appeared, and a city of modest size grew up over and around the ruins of the Bronze Age fortress. During the Hellenistic and Roman eras, efforts were made to rehabilitate the ancient site, which became important mainly as a tourist attraction. It is not known to have survived beyond the 4th century A.D., but its memory remained influential on the Western imagination. [s.v. “Troy,” Cedric Boulter, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Akurgal, Ekrem, Ancient Civilizations and Ruins of Turkey (1969); Blegen, Carl W., Troy and Trojans (1963); Blegen, Carl W., et al., Troy: Excavations Conducted by the University of Cincinnati, 1932-1938, 4 vols. (1950-58); Lloyd, Seton, Early Highland Peoples of Anatolia (1967); Scherer, Margaret R., The Legends of Troy in Art and Literature (1963); Schliemann, Heinrich, Ilios (1880; repr. 1977); Young, Arthur M., Troy and Her Legend (1948; repr. 1971).

vir L. man, i.e., male.

virtue n. [M.E. & OFr. vertu, virtue, goodness, power; L. virtus, manliness, worth], 1. general moral excellence; right action and thinking; goodness of character. 2. a specific moral quality regarded as good or meritorious: as, generosity is a great virtue; specifically, in philosophy & theology, any of the cardinal virtues or the theological virtues. 3. chastity, especially in a woman. 4. a) excellence in general; merit; value; as, there is some virtue in what you say. b) a specific excellence; good quality or feature: as, the virtues of teaching as a profession. 5. effective power or force; efficacy; potency; especially, the ability to heal or strengthen: as, the virtue of a medicine. 6. [Obs.], manly quality; strength, courage, etc. 7. pl. in theology, one of the orders of angels. [s.v. “virtue” Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, college edition, (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company, 1964), p. 1630.]

See: arete.

wisdom sophia.

Xenophon

The Athenian Xenophon, c.430-c.354 BC, was both a soldier and one of the most celebrated of the ancient Greek historians. Like Plato, he was a follower of Socrates in his youth, and he later wrote about Socrates in his Memorabilia and other essays. In 401, Xenophon left Athens to join a mercenary army led by Cyrus the Younger against his brother King Artaxerxes II of Persia. The Anabasis, his lively account of that campaign, describes the desperate efforts of the Greek army to make its way from Babylon to the Black Sea through the heart of hostile territory. Banished from Athens because of his pro-Spartan sympathies, Xenophon served in the Spartan army. The Spartans eventually gave him a property near Olympia, where he devoted himself to hunting and literature. He wrote the Hellenica, a history of Greece from 411 to 362, in continuation of Thucydides' great work; a romantic biography of Cyrus the Great, Cyropaedia; and numerous lesser essays. [s.v. “Xenophon,” Charles W. Fornara, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1993).]

Bibliography: Anderson, J. K., Xenophon (1974); Higgins, William E., Xenophon the Athenian: The Problem of the Individual and the Society of the Polis (1977); Strauss, Leo, Xenophon's Socratic Discourse (1970).